Editing Sexual orientation (section)

==Culture==
{{See also|LGBT history|Societal attitudes toward homosexuality|LGBT community and multiculturalism}}
[[File:Gay Pride Paris 2009.jpg|thumb|left|Gay Pride, [[Paris]] 2009]]

Research suggests that sexual orientation is independent of cultural and other social influences, but that open identification of one's sexual orientation may be hindered by [[homophobia|homophobic]]/[[heterosexism|heterosexist]] settings. Social systems such as religion, language and ethnic traditions can have a powerful impact on realization of sexual orientation. Influences of culture may complicate the process of [[#Measuring sexual orientation|measuring sexual orientation]]. The majority of empirical and clinical research on LGBT populations are done with largely white, middle-class, well-educated samples; however, there are pockets of research that document various other cultural groups, although these are frequently limited in diversity of gender and sexual orientation of the subjects.<ref name="Garnets, L. 2003">Garnets, L. & Kimmel, D.C. (Eds.). (2003). Psychological perspectives on lesbian, gay and bisexual experiences. New York: Columbia University Press</ref> Integration of sexual orientation with sociocultural identity may be a challenge for LGBT individuals.  Individuals may or may not consider their sexual orientation to define their [[sexual identity]], as they may experience various degrees of [[#Fluidity|fluidity of sexuality]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mock | first1 = S.E. | last2 = Eibach | first2 = R.P. | year = 2011 | title = Stability and change in sexual orientation identity over a 10-year period in adulthood | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume =  41| issue = 3| pages =  641–48| doi = 10.1007/s10508-011-9761-1 | pmid=21584828| s2cid = 15771368 }}</ref> or may simply identify more strongly with another aspect of their identity such as family role. American culture puts a great emphasis on individual attributes, and views the self as unchangeable and constant. In contrast, East Asian cultures put a great emphasis on a person's social role within social hierarchies, and view the self as fluid and malleable.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Markus H.R. |author2=Kitayama S. | year = 1991 | title = Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 98 | issue = 2| pages = 224–53 | doi=10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224|citeseerx=10.1.1.320.1159 }}</ref> These differing cultural perspectives have many implications on cognition of the self, including perception of sexual orientation.

===Language===
Translation is a major obstacle when comparing different cultures. Many English terms lack equivalents in other languages, while concepts and words from other languages fail to be reflected in the English language.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Minwalla O. |author2=Rosser B.R.S. |author3=Feldman J. |author4=Varga C. |year=2005 |title=Identity experience among progressive gay Muslims in North America: A qualitative study within Al-Fatiha |url=http://nozizwe.co.za/pdf/CultureHealthSexuality.pdf |journal=Culture, Health & Sexuality |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=113–28 |doi=10.1080/13691050412331321294 |pmid=16864192 |citeseerx=10.1.1.464.9089 |s2cid=30150323 |access-date=2017-10-26 |archive-date=2020-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204124102/http://nozizwe.co.za/pdf/CultureHealthSexuality.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sechrest | first1 = L. | last2 = Fay | first2 = T.L. | last3 = Zaidi | first3 = M.H. | year = 1972 | title = Problems of Translation in Cross-Cultural Research | journal = Journal of Cross-Cultural Research | volume = 3 | issue = 1| pages = 41–56 | doi = 10.1177/002202217200300103 | s2cid = 145766651 }}</ref> Translation and vocabulary obstacles are not limited to the English language.<ref name="Santaemilia, J. 2008 pp. 181–98">Santaemilia, J. (2008). 'War of words' on New (Legal) Sexual Identities: Spain's Recent Gender-Related Legislation and Discursive Conflict. In J. Santaemilia & P. Bou (Eds.). ''Gender and sexual identities in transition: international perspectives'', pp. 181–98. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.</ref>  Language can force individuals to identify with a label that may or may not accurately reflect their true sexual orientation. Language can also be used to signal sexual orientation to others.<ref>Leap, W.L. (1996). Word's Out: Gay Men's English. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press.</ref> The meaning of words referencing categories of sexual orientation are negotiated in the mass media in relation to social organization.<ref name="Santaemilia, J. 2008 pp. 181–98" />  New words may be brought into use to describe new terms or better describe complex interpretations of sexual orientation.  Other words may pick up new layers or meaning. For example, the heterosexual Spanish terms ''marido'' and ''mujer'' for "husband" and "wife", respectively, have recently been replaced in Spain by the gender-neutral terms ''cónyuges'' or ''consortes'' meaning "spouses".<ref name="Santaemilia, J. 2008 pp. 181–98" />

===Perceptions===
[[File:Hate Hurts Wales - Portrayal of Sexual Orientation Hate Crime.webm|thumb|A short government video on the portrayal of sexual orientation hate crime]]

One person may presume knowledge of another person's sexual orientation based upon perceived characteristics, such as appearance, clothing, voice (c.f. [[Gay male speech]]), and accompaniment by and behavior with other people. The attempt to detect sexual orientation in social situations is sometimes colloquially known as [[gaydar]]; some studies have found that guesses based on face photos perform better than chance.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=22128555 |year=2011 |last1=Rule |first1=NO |title=The influence of target and perceiver race in the categorisation of male sexual orientation |volume=40 |issue=7 |pages=830–39 |journal=Perception |doi=10.1068/p7001|hdl=1807/33198 |s2cid=23790518 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=21483863 |year=2011 |last1=Johnson |first1=KL |last2=Ghavami |first2=N |title=At the crossroads of conspicuous and concealable: What race categories communicate about sexual orientation |volume=6 |issue=3 |page=e18025 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0018025 |pmc=3069043 |journal=PLOS ONE |editor1-last=Gilbert |editor1-first=Sam|bibcode=2011PLoSO...618025J |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=21807952 |year=2011 |last1=Rule |first1=NO |last2=Ishii |first2=K |last3=Ambady |first3=N |last4=Rosen |first4=KS |last5=Hallett |first5=KC |title=Found in translation: Cross-cultural consensus in the accurate categorization of male sexual orientation |volume=37 |issue=11 |pages=1499–507 |doi=10.1177/0146167211415630 |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |s2cid=3847105 |url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/33193/1/Rule_etal%282011-PSPB%29.pdf |access-date=2018-04-20 |archive-date=2021-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228034357/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/33193/1/Rule_etal(2011-PSPB).pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> 2015 research suggests that "gaydar" is an alternate label for using [[LGBT stereotypes]] to infer orientation, and that face-shape is not an accurate indication of orientation.<ref name="Cox et al. (2015)">{{cite journal |last1= Cox |first1= William T.L. |last2= Devine |first2= Patricia G. |last3= Bischmann |first3= Alyssa A. |last4= Hyde |first4= Janet S. |year= 2015 |title= Inferences About Sexual Orientation: The Roles of Stereotypes, Faces, and The Gaydar Myth |journal= [[The Journal of Sex Research]] |volume= 52 |issue= 8 |pages= 1–15 |doi= 10.1080/00224499.2015.1015714|pmc= 4731319 |pmid=26219212}}</ref>

Perceived sexual orientation may affect how a person is treated. For instance, in the United States, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] reported that 15.6% of [[hate crime]]s reported to police in 2004 were "because of a sexual-orientation bias".<ref name="FBI crime">{{Cite news|title=Crime in the United States 2004: Hate Crime |url=https://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_04/offenses_reported/hate_crime/index.html |periodical=[[FBI]] |access-date=2007-05-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070411090510/http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_04/offenses_reported/hate_crime/index.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=April 11, 2007 }}</ref> Under the [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003]], as explained by Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service,<ref>[http://www.acas.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=1342 ACAS (About Us)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206190343/http://www.acas.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=1342 |date=2019-12-06 }}, as accessed April 19, 2010.</ref> "workers or job applicants must not be treated less favourably because of their sexual orientation, their perceived sexual orientation or because they associate with someone of a particular sexual orientation".<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.acas.org.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=105&p=0 |title = Sexual orientation and the workplace: Putting the Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003 into practice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219232635/http://www.acas.org.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=105&p=0 |archive-date=19 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In Euro-American cultures, norms, values, traditions and laws facilitate heterosexuality,<ref>Rust, P.C. (2003).  Finding a Sexual Identity and Community: Therapeutic Implications and Cultural Assumptions in Scientific Models of Coming Out. In L. Garnets & D.C. Kimmel (Eds.).  Psychological perspectives on lesbian, gay and bisexual experiences (pp. 227–69). New York: Columbia University Press</ref> including constructs of marriage and family.<ref name="Garnets, L. 2003" /> Efforts are being made to change prejudiced attitudes, and legislation is being passed to promote equality.<ref name="Santaemilia, J. 2008 pp. 181–98" />
 
Some other cultures do not recognize a homosexual/heterosexual/bisexual distinction. It is common to distinguish a person's sexuality according to their sexual role (active/passive; insertive/penetrated). In this distinction, the passive role is typically associated with femininity or inferiority, while the active role is typically associated with masculinity or superiority.<ref name="Santaemilia, J. 2008 pp. 181–98" /><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Carballo-Diéguez A. |author2=Dolezal C. |author3=Nieves L. |author4=Díaz F. |author5=Decena C. |author6=Balan I. | year = 2004 | title = Looking for a tall, dark, macho man… sexual-role behaviour variations in Latino gay and bisexual men | journal = Culture, Health & Sexuality | volume = 6 | issue = 2| pages = 159–71 | doi = 10.1080/13691050310001619662 |s2cid=144131628 }}</ref><ref name="Cardoso, F.L. 2005">{{cite journal | author = Cardoso F.L. | year = 2005 | title = Cultural Universals and Differences in Male Homosexuality: The Case of a Brazilian Fishing Village | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 34 | issue = 1| pages = 103–09 | doi =  10.1007/s10508-005-1004-x | pmid = 15772773| s2cid = 28100810 }}</ref> For example, an investigation of a small Brazilian fishing village revealed three sexual categories for men: men who have sex only with men (consistently in a passive role), men who have sex only with women, and men who have sex with women and men (consistently in an active role).  While men who consistently occupied the passive role were recognized as a distinct group by locals, men who have sex with only women, and men who have sex with women and men, were not differentiated.<ref name="Cardoso, F.L. 2005" /> Little is known about same-sex attracted females, or sexual behavior between females in these cultures.

===Racism and ethnically relevant support===
{{see also|African-American culture and sexual orientation}}
In the United States, non-Caucasian LGBT individuals may find themselves in a double minority, where they are neither fully accepted or understood by mainly Caucasian LGBT communities, nor are they accepted by their own ethnic group.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cheng | first1 = P. | year = 2011 | title = Gay Asian Masculinities and Christian Theologies | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/5899c4c6f0a1fd9c34e4ea57bdde6e12759ba65b | journal = Cross Currents | volume = 61 | issue = 4 | pages = 540–48 | doi = 10.1111/j.1939-3881.2011.00202.x | s2cid = 170388404 | access-date = 2019-12-01 | archive-date = 2021-08-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210824071649/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Gay-Asian-Masculinities-and-Christian-Theologies-Cheng/5899c4c6f0a1fd9c34e4ea57bdde6e12759ba65b | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Masequesmay, G. 2003">{{cite journal | last1 = Masequesmay | first1 = G. | year = 2003 | title = Emergence of queer Vietnamese America | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c9ec9600cbbed6efc56c0de809b565d0a4c0d079 | journal = Amerasia Journal | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 117–34 | doi = 10.17953/amer.29.1.l15512728mj65738 | s2cid = 146235953 | access-date = 2019-12-01 | archive-date = 2021-08-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210824071650/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Emergence-of-Queer-Vietnamese-America-Masequesmay/c9ec9600cbbed6efc56c0de809b565d0a4c0d079 | url-status = live }}</ref> Many people experience racism in the dominant LGBT community where racial stereotypes merge with gender stereotypes, such that Asian-American LGBTs are viewed as more passive and feminine, while African-American LGBTs are viewed as more masculine and aggressive.<ref name="Garnets, L. 2003" /> There are a number of culturally specific support networks for LGBT individuals active in the United States. For example, "Ô-Môi" for Vietnamese American queer females.<ref name="Masequesmay, G. 2003" />

===Religion===
{{see also|LGBT matters and religion|Religion and homosexuality}}
Sexuality in the context of religion is often a controversial subject, especially that of sexual orientation. In the past, various sects have viewed homosexuality from a negative point of view and had punishments for same-sex relationships. In modern times, an increasing number of religions and religious denominations accept homosexuality. It is possible to integrate sexual identity and religious identity, depending on the interpretation of religious texts.

Some religious organizations object to the concept of sexual orientation entirely.  In the 2014 revision of the code of ethics of the American Association of Christian Counselors, members are forbidden to "describe or reduce human identity and nature to sexual orientation or reference," even while counselors must acknowledge the client's fundamental right to self-determination.<ref name=AACC_coe>{{cite web|title=Code of Ethics of the American Association of Christian Counselors|url=http://aacc.net/files/AACC%20Code%20of%20Ethics%20-%20Master%20Document.pdf|website=www.aacc.net|publisher=American Association of Christian Counselors|access-date=May 21, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213065814/http://aacc.net/files/AACC%20Code%20of%20Ethics%20-%20Master%20Document.pdf|archive-date=February 13, 2015|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Internet and media===
{{see also|LGBT stereotypes}}
The Internet has influenced sexual orientation in two ways: it is a common mode of discourse on the subject of sexual orientation and sexual identity, and therefore shapes popular conceptions;<ref name="Santaemilia, J. 2008 pp. 181–98" /> and it allows anonymous attainment of sexual partners, as well as facilitates communication and connection between greater numbers of people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=M. |last2=Hart |first2=G. |last3=Bolding |first3=G. |last4=Sherr |first4=L. |last5=Elford |first5=J. |year=2006 |title=Sex and the Internet: Gay men, risk reduction and serostatus |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c312a390897566fbbc6154e200f416e41c5fcc47 |journal=Culture, Health & Sexuality |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=161–74 |doi=10.1080/13691050500526126 |pmid=16641064 |s2cid=7585088 |access-date=2019-12-01 |archive-date=2021-08-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824071649/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Sex-and-the-Internet%3A-Gay-men%2C-risk-reduction-and-Davis-Hart/c312a390897566fbbc6154e200f416e41c5fcc47 |url-status=live }}</ref>